Inclusive Education in China: From Policy to Implementation to On the Ground Experiences
Main Article Content
Keywords
inclusion, inclusive education, policy, China
Abstract
Inclusive education rights in China are increasing, yet gaps remain between policy and practice. Increasing access to inclusion (suiban jiudu) is important. To understand policy implementation, this qualitative study examined how families experience the schooling of their children with disabilities. Results demonstrate that children’s rights to inclusive education are recognized, though a stronger support system is still needed.
References
Authors. (2023). Views of Peidu: Parents accompanying children with autism and other developmental disorders to school in China. Submitted.
Braun, V. & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77-101.
China Daily. (2018). 适龄残障儿童入学状况调研报告显示:2017年适龄残障儿童申请入学成功率仅为69% [Survey report on the enrollment status of school-age children with disabilities shows: In 2017, only 69 percent of children with disabilities enrolled successfully]. http://ent.chinadaily.com.cn/2018-03/05/content_35785933.htm
Ding, Y. (2021). “十四五”时期我国特殊教育高质量发展的思考与建议 [Thoughts and suggestions on the high quality development of special education in China during the period of “14th Five-Year Plan”]. 现代特殊教育, 7, 8–15.
Du, L., & Feng, Q. (2019). 国际融合教育研究进展综述及对我国的启示 [A review of the progress of international inclusive education research and its enlightenment to China]. 残疾人研究, 3, 19–24.
Fang, J. (2019). 江苏融合教育发展从顶层设计到务实推进 [The development of inclusive education from top-level design to practical promotion in Jiangsu]. 现代特殊教育, 3, 8–11.
Glaser, B., & Strauss, A. (1967). The discovery of Grounded Theory: Strategies for qualitative research. Mill Valley, CA: Sociology Press.
Guo, Z., & Deng, M. (2021). 融合教育模式的中国话语及实践路径 -- 基于教育部随班就读《指导意见》的分析与反思 [Chinese discourse and practical path of inclusive education model-- An analysis and reflection on the Guiding Opinions on Learning in Regular Classroom of the Ministry of Education]. 中国特殊教育, 12, 3–9.
Huang, Y., & Wu, J. (2021). 我国融合教育政策的动力变迁及其优化路径 [The dynamic change and Its optimal path of inclusive education policy in China]. 现代特殊教育, 14, 8–13.
Li, S. (2017). 在《第二期特殊教育提升计划(2017—2020年)》部署会上的发言 [Statement at the Second Phase of the Special Education Promotion Plan (2017-2020) Conference]. 中国特殊教育,08, 3-4.
Li, L. (2022). .融合教育教学的几个基本问题探究 [Several fundamental issues in inclusive education].中国教育学刊, 01, 54-58.
Liang, S., Xu, J., Sun, Y., Song, X., Wang, S., Sun, Q., Zhu, Z., Peng, X., Yao, L., Zhang, M., Li, T., Wang, H., Dang, Q., Liu, H., & Li, J. (2015). 北京市融合教育资源教室（中心） 办学条件标准（设备类）细则的研究与思考. [Research and thinking on the Detailed Rules for Standards for Running Beijing Inclusion Resource Classes (Centers) (focus on equipment)]. 中国现代教育装备, 24, 13–16. https://doi.org/10.13492/j.cnki.cmee.2015.24.035
Liu, S., & Zhao, D. (2013). Teacher evaluation in China: Latest trends and future directions. Educational Assessment, Evaluation and Accountability, 25(3), 231-250.doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s11092-013-9168-8
Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis. An expanded sourcebook (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Ministry of Education (MOE). (2016). 教育部．教育部办公厅关于印发《普通学校特殊教育资源教室建设指南》的通知［The Guidelines for Building Special Education Resource Classrooms in Ordinary Schools] http://www.moe.gov.cn/srcsite/A06/s3331/201602/t20160216_229610.html
Ministry of Education (MOE). (2020). 教育部关于加强残疾儿童少年义务教育阶段随班就读工作的指导意见 [Guidelines of the Ministry of Education on Strengthening the Work of Learning in Regular Class for disabled Children and Adolescents during Compulsory Education Period]. 现代特殊教育, 15, 4–6.
National Education Committee. (1994). 关于开展残疾儿童少年随班就读工作的试行办法 [Trial Measures of Implementing Learning in Regular Classrooms for Children and Adolescents with Disabilities]. 现代特殊教育, 5, 8–9.
National People’s Congress. (1986). 中华人民共和国义务教育法 [Compulsory Education Act of the People’s Republic of China]. Beijing: Law Publishers.
National People’s Congress. (1990). 中华人民共和国残疾人保障法 [Law on the Protection of Persons with Disabilities], http://www.scio.gov.cn/xwfbh/xwbfbh/wqfbh/33978/34988/xgzc34994/Document/1488991/1488991.htm
National People’s Congress. (2006). 中华人民共和国义务教育法 [Compulsory Education Act of the People’s Republic of China, Revised]. Retrieved: http://www.gov.cn/flfg/2006-06/30/content_323302.htm
National People’s Congress. (2008). 中华人民共和国残疾人保障法 [Law on the Protection of Persons with Disabilities (Revised)]. http://big5.www.gov.cn/gate/big5/www.gov.cn/test/2008-12/11/content_1174760.htm
Nowell, L. S., Norris, J. M., White, D. E., & Moules, N. J. (2017). Thematic analysis: Striving to meet the trustworthiness criteria. International journal of qualitative methods, 16(1), https://doi.org/10.1177/1609406917733847
Ren, S., & Wang, Y. (2020). 我国特殊教育政策的执行困境 [Difficulty in implementing special education policy in China]. 办公室业务, 10, 37-38,45.
Sandelowski, M. (2004). Using qualitative research. Qualitative Health Research, 14, 1366–1386. doi:10.1177/1049732304269672.
State Council. (1994). 残疾人教育条例 [Regulations on Education for Disabled Persons]. Beijing: China Legal Publishing House.
State Council. (2009). 关于进一步加快特殊教育事业发展的意见 [Notice on Opinions on Further Accelerating the Development of Special Education], 现代特殊教育, 5, 5-7.
State Council. (2010). 国家中长期教育改革和发展规划纲要(2010-2020年). [National Medium- and Long-Term Educational Reform and Development Plan] http://www.gov.cn/jrzg/2010-07/29/content_1667143.htm
State Council. (2014). 特殊教育提升计划(2014-2016年) [Special Education Improvement Plan (2014-2016)]. 中国特殊教育, 2, 3-5.
State Council. (2017a). 第二期特殊教育提升计划 (2017-2020年) [Second Phase of Special Education Improvement Plan (2017-2020)]. http://www.gov.cn/xinwen/2017-07/28/content_5214071.htm
State Council (2017b). 残疾人教育条例 [Regulations on Education for Disabled Persons]. http://www.gov.cn/zhengce/content/2017-02/23/content_5170264.htm
State Council. (2021). 国务院办公厅关于转发教育部等部门“十四五”特殊教育发展提升行动计划的通知 [Action Plan for the Development and Improvement of Special Education in the 14th Five-Year Plan], (2021). http://www.moe.gov.cn/jyb_xxgk/moe_1777/moe_1778/202201/t20220125_596312.html
Su, Q.X., Cooper, P., & Sin, K. (2018). The ‘Learning in Regular Classrooms’ initiative for inclusive education in China, International Journal of Inclusive Education, 22:1, 54-73, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13603116.2017.1348547
Sun, Y., Wang, S., Du, Y., Zhu, Z., & Chen, Y. (2020). 基千生态系统理论构建的融合教育专业支持系统探究 —以北京市为例 [A study on an ecosystem theory-based professional support system for inclusive education: A case of Beijing]. 中国特殊教育, 7, 24–30.
UNESCO. (1994). The Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action on Special Needs Education. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000098427
United Nations. (2006). Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. https://www.un.org/development/desa/disabilities/convention-on-the-rights-of-persons-with-disabilities.html
Xia, F., & Xu, Y. (2017). 第二期特殊教育提升计划实施背景下新型特教学校建设的理念和策略 [The concept and strategy of new-type special education school construction under the background of The Second Phase of Special Education Promotion Plan]. 现代特殊教育, 17, 5–8.
Xiao, F. (2003). 观念现代化:特殊教育发展的动力源 [Concept modernization: The power source of special education development]. 人民教育, (06), 22-23
Xiao, F. (2005). 中国的随班就读：历史、现状、展望 [Mainstreaming in China: History, actuality, perspectives]. 中国特殊教育, 3, 3–7.
Xu, X. (2020). 权利视阈下的特殊儿童融合教育支持体系构建 [The support system construction of inclusive education for special children from the perspective of rights]. 社会工作与管理, 20(4), 89-96.
Xu, Z., & Jia, Z. (2020). 融合教育的本土化研究 [A study on the localization of inclusive education]. 昭通学院学报, 42(1), 78–83.
Yang, Y. (2019). 辅助教师支持随班就读自闭症谱系障碍学生课堂参与的行动研究 [Action research on the paraprofessionals supporting the class participation of a student with Autism Spectrum Disorder in regular class] (Master's thesis, Southwest University).
Yang, C. (2021). 融合教育背景下自闭症儿童入园适应的个案研究 [A case study of the adaptation of autistic children to the kindergarten under the background of inclusive education]. (Master Thesis, Hunan Normal University).
Yang, X. (2022). 我们需不需要发展特教班:谈义务教育阶段普通学校设立特教班的意义 [Do we need to develop special education classes: Reflection on its significance in regular compulsory education schools]. 中国特殊教育, 1, 10–14, 21.
Yin, Y. (2016). 迎接挑战，应对转型：完善和加强特殊教育支持保障体系 [Welcome challenges, cope with transformation: Improve and strengthen the special education support system]. 现代特殊教育, 7, 5–7.
You, B. (1997). 当代特殊教育理念综述 [A literature review of contemporary special education theories]. 外国教育资料, (04). 46-50.
Zhang, Y., & Lu, Z. (2020). 常熟市普通学校融合教育资源中心建设的实践探索 [Practice and exploration of the construction of integrated education resource center for ordinary schools in Changshu City]. 现代特殊教育, 9, 23–25.
Zhao, X., & Zhang, C. (2018). From isolated fence to inclusive society: The transformational disability policy in China. Disability & society, 33(1), 132-137.
Zheng, W., Zhang, M., & Wang, P. (2019). 建国以来我国融合教育的实践理路——基于政策文本的分析 [Practice of inclusive education in China since the founding of the PRC -- Based on an analysis of policy documents]. 中国特殊教育, 1, 3–10, 24.
Zhu, N., & Wang, Y. (2011). 融合教育背景下特殊教育学校职能的转变 [Function change of special education schools in the context of inclusive education]. 中国特殊教育, 12, 3–8.
Braun, V. & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77-101.
China Daily. (2018). 适龄残障儿童入学状况调研报告显示:2017年适龄残障儿童申请入学成功率仅为69% [Survey report on the enrollment status of school-age children with disabilities shows: In 2017, only 69 percent of children with disabilities enrolled successfully]. http://ent.chinadaily.com.cn/2018-03/05/content_35785933.htm
Ding, Y. (2021). “十四五”时期我国特殊教育高质量发展的思考与建议 [Thoughts and suggestions on the high quality development of special education in China during the period of “14th Five-Year Plan”]. 现代特殊教育, 7, 8–15.
Du, L., & Feng, Q. (2019). 国际融合教育研究进展综述及对我国的启示 [A review of the progress of international inclusive education research and its enlightenment to China]. 残疾人研究, 3, 19–24.
Fang, J. (2019). 江苏融合教育发展从顶层设计到务实推进 [The development of inclusive education from top-level design to practical promotion in Jiangsu]. 现代特殊教育, 3, 8–11.
Glaser, B., & Strauss, A. (1967). The discovery of Grounded Theory: Strategies for qualitative research. Mill Valley, CA: Sociology Press.
Guo, Z., & Deng, M. (2021). 融合教育模式的中国话语及实践路径 -- 基于教育部随班就读《指导意见》的分析与反思 [Chinese discourse and practical path of inclusive education model-- An analysis and reflection on the Guiding Opinions on Learning in Regular Classroom of the Ministry of Education]. 中国特殊教育, 12, 3–9.
Huang, Y., & Wu, J. (2021). 我国融合教育政策的动力变迁及其优化路径 [The dynamic change and Its optimal path of inclusive education policy in China]. 现代特殊教育, 14, 8–13.
Li, S. (2017). 在《第二期特殊教育提升计划(2017—2020年)》部署会上的发言 [Statement at the Second Phase of the Special Education Promotion Plan (2017-2020) Conference]. 中国特殊教育,08, 3-4.
Li, L. (2022). .融合教育教学的几个基本问题探究 [Several fundamental issues in inclusive education].中国教育学刊, 01, 54-58.
Liang, S., Xu, J., Sun, Y., Song, X., Wang, S., Sun, Q., Zhu, Z., Peng, X., Yao, L., Zhang, M., Li, T., Wang, H., Dang, Q., Liu, H., & Li, J. (2015). 北京市融合教育资源教室（中心） 办学条件标准（设备类）细则的研究与思考. [Research and thinking on the Detailed Rules for Standards for Running Beijing Inclusion Resource Classes (Centers) (focus on equipment)]. 中国现代教育装备, 24, 13–16. https://doi.org/10.13492/j.cnki.cmee.2015.24.035
Liu, S., & Zhao, D. (2013). Teacher evaluation in China: Latest trends and future directions. Educational Assessment, Evaluation and Accountability, 25(3), 231-250.doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s11092-013-9168-8
Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis. An expanded sourcebook (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Ministry of Education (MOE). (2016). 教育部．教育部办公厅关于印发《普通学校特殊教育资源教室建设指南》的通知［The Guidelines for Building Special Education Resource Classrooms in Ordinary Schools] http://www.moe.gov.cn/srcsite/A06/s3331/201602/t20160216_229610.html
Ministry of Education (MOE). (2020). 教育部关于加强残疾儿童少年义务教育阶段随班就读工作的指导意见 [Guidelines of the Ministry of Education on Strengthening the Work of Learning in Regular Class for disabled Children and Adolescents during Compulsory Education Period]. 现代特殊教育, 15, 4–6.
National Education Committee. (1994). 关于开展残疾儿童少年随班就读工作的试行办法 [Trial Measures of Implementing Learning in Regular Classrooms for Children and Adolescents with Disabilities]. 现代特殊教育, 5, 8–9.
National People’s Congress. (1986). 中华人民共和国义务教育法 [Compulsory Education Act of the People’s Republic of China]. Beijing: Law Publishers.
National People’s Congress. (1990). 中华人民共和国残疾人保障法 [Law on the Protection of Persons with Disabilities], http://www.scio.gov.cn/xwfbh/xwbfbh/wqfbh/33978/34988/xgzc34994/Document/1488991/1488991.htm
National People’s Congress. (2006). 中华人民共和国义务教育法 [Compulsory Education Act of the People’s Republic of China, Revised]. Retrieved: http://www.gov.cn/flfg/2006-06/30/content_323302.htm
National People’s Congress. (2008). 中华人民共和国残疾人保障法 [Law on the Protection of Persons with Disabilities (Revised)]. http://big5.www.gov.cn/gate/big5/www.gov.cn/test/2008-12/11/content_1174760.htm
Nowell, L. S., Norris, J. M., White, D. E., & Moules, N. J. (2017). Thematic analysis: Striving to meet the trustworthiness criteria. International journal of qualitative methods, 16(1), https://doi.org/10.1177/1609406917733847
Ren, S., & Wang, Y. (2020). 我国特殊教育政策的执行困境 [Difficulty in implementing special education policy in China]. 办公室业务, 10, 37-38,45.
Sandelowski, M. (2004). Using qualitative research. Qualitative Health Research, 14, 1366–1386. doi:10.1177/1049732304269672.
State Council. (1994). 残疾人教育条例 [Regulations on Education for Disabled Persons]. Beijing: China Legal Publishing House.
State Council. (2009). 关于进一步加快特殊教育事业发展的意见 [Notice on Opinions on Further Accelerating the Development of Special Education], 现代特殊教育, 5, 5-7.
State Council. (2010). 国家中长期教育改革和发展规划纲要(2010-2020年). [National Medium- and Long-Term Educational Reform and Development Plan] http://www.gov.cn/jrzg/2010-07/29/content_1667143.htm
State Council. (2014). 特殊教育提升计划(2014-2016年) [Special Education Improvement Plan (2014-2016)]. 中国特殊教育, 2, 3-5.
State Council. (2017a). 第二期特殊教育提升计划 (2017-2020年) [Second Phase of Special Education Improvement Plan (2017-2020)]. http://www.gov.cn/xinwen/2017-07/28/content_5214071.htm
State Council (2017b). 残疾人教育条例 [Regulations on Education for Disabled Persons]. http://www.gov.cn/zhengce/content/2017-02/23/content_5170264.htm
State Council. (2021). 国务院办公厅关于转发教育部等部门“十四五”特殊教育发展提升行动计划的通知 [Action Plan for the Development and Improvement of Special Education in the 14th Five-Year Plan], (2021). http://www.moe.gov.cn/jyb_xxgk/moe_1777/moe_1778/202201/t20220125_596312.html
Su, Q.X., Cooper, P., & Sin, K. (2018). The ‘Learning in Regular Classrooms’ initiative for inclusive education in China, International Journal of Inclusive Education, 22:1, 54-73, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13603116.2017.1348547
Sun, Y., Wang, S., Du, Y., Zhu, Z., & Chen, Y. (2020). 基千生态系统理论构建的融合教育专业支持系统探究 —以北京市为例 [A study on an ecosystem theory-based professional support system for inclusive education: A case of Beijing]. 中国特殊教育, 7, 24–30.
UNESCO. (1994). The Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action on Special Needs Education. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000098427
United Nations. (2006). Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. https://www.un.org/development/desa/disabilities/convention-on-the-rights-of-persons-with-disabilities.html
Xia, F., & Xu, Y. (2017). 第二期特殊教育提升计划实施背景下新型特教学校建设的理念和策略 [The concept and strategy of new-type special education school construction under the background of The Second Phase of Special Education Promotion Plan]. 现代特殊教育, 17, 5–8.
Xiao, F. (2003). 观念现代化:特殊教育发展的动力源 [Concept modernization: The power source of special education development]. 人民教育, (06), 22-23
Xiao, F. (2005). 中国的随班就读：历史、现状、展望 [Mainstreaming in China: History, actuality, perspectives]. 中国特殊教育, 3, 3–7.
Xu, X. (2020). 权利视阈下的特殊儿童融合教育支持体系构建 [The support system construction of inclusive education for special children from the perspective of rights]. 社会工作与管理, 20(4), 89-96.
Xu, Z., & Jia, Z. (2020). 融合教育的本土化研究 [A study on the localization of inclusive education]. 昭通学院学报, 42(1), 78–83.
Yang, Y. (2019). 辅助教师支持随班就读自闭症谱系障碍学生课堂参与的行动研究 [Action research on the paraprofessionals supporting the class participation of a student with Autism Spectrum Disorder in regular class] (Master's thesis, Southwest University).
Yang, C. (2021). 融合教育背景下自闭症儿童入园适应的个案研究 [A case study of the adaptation of autistic children to the kindergarten under the background of inclusive education]. (Master Thesis, Hunan Normal University).
Yang, X. (2022). 我们需不需要发展特教班:谈义务教育阶段普通学校设立特教班的意义 [Do we need to develop special education classes: Reflection on its significance in regular compulsory education schools]. 中国特殊教育, 1, 10–14, 21.
Yin, Y. (2016). 迎接挑战，应对转型：完善和加强特殊教育支持保障体系 [Welcome challenges, cope with transformation: Improve and strengthen the special education support system]. 现代特殊教育, 7, 5–7.
You, B. (1997). 当代特殊教育理念综述 [A literature review of contemporary special education theories]. 外国教育资料, (04). 46-50.
Zhang, Y., & Lu, Z. (2020). 常熟市普通学校融合教育资源中心建设的实践探索 [Practice and exploration of the construction of integrated education resource center for ordinary schools in Changshu City]. 现代特殊教育, 9, 23–25.
Zhao, X., & Zhang, C. (2018). From isolated fence to inclusive society: The transformational disability policy in China. Disability & society, 33(1), 132-137.
Zheng, W., Zhang, M., & Wang, P. (2019). 建国以来我国融合教育的实践理路——基于政策文本的分析 [Practice of inclusive education in China since the founding of the PRC -- Based on an analysis of policy documents]. 中国特殊教育, 1, 3–10, 24.
Zhu, N., & Wang, Y. (2011). 融合教育背景下特殊教育学校职能的转变 [Function change of special education schools in the context of inclusive education]. 中国特殊教育, 12, 3–8.
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Author Biographies
Helen McCabe, Daemen University
Helen McCabe, PhD, BCBA is an associate professor of education at Daemen University. She has conducted research as well as provided training and support to teachers and families of children with autism in China for over 20 years.
Tian Jiang, Warner School of Education and Human Development, University of Rochester
Tian Jiang, MS, BCBA, is a doctoral candidate at the Warner School of Education and Human Development, University of Rochester. Jiang’s work involves training teachers and parents on implementing ABA-based strategies and advising policymakers on creating initiatives that suit the Chinese context.