A Comparison of Male and Female Title I ADA Discrimination Allegations in Relation to Employer Characteristics
Main Article Content
Keywords
employment, gender, Americans with Disabilities Act
Abstract
This investigation determined if there is a difference in the proportion of Title I workplace discrimination allegations filed by females in comparison to males under the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) in relation to the employer characteristics. Findings are reported and implications for future research and vocational rehabilitation practice.
References
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Altman B., & Bernstein A. (2008). Disability and health in the United States, 2001–2005. Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics.
Armstrong, A. J., Koch, L. C., Lewis, A. N., Hurley, J. E., Lewis, P. H., McMahon, B. T. (2011). Gender, disability, and ADA Title I employment discrimination: A comparison of male and female charging party characteristics. Review of Disability Studies, 7(1).
Asch, A., & Fine, M. (1988). Introduction: Beyond pedestals. In M. Fine and A. Asch (Eds.), Women with disabilities: Essays in psychology, culture and politics. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.
Baldwin, M. (1991). Evidence on the occupational segregation of women with disabilities. Journal of Disability Policy Studies, 2(3), 31-47.
Baldwin, M., & Johnson, W. (1995). Labor market discrimination against females with disabilities, Industrial Relations, 34, 555–577.
Baldwin, M., Johnson, W., & Watson, S. (1993). A double burden of discrimination: Females with disabilities. Washington, DC: Center for the Study of Social Policy.
Bergmann, B. R. (1974). Occupational segregation, wages and profits when employers discriminate by race or sex. Eastern Economic Journal, 1, 103-110.
Bowe, F. (1992). Adults with disabilities: A portrait. Washington, DC: President’s Committee on Employment of People with Disabilities.
Bruyere, S. M., Erikson, W. A., & VanLooy, S. A. (2006). The impact of business size on employer ADA response. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin, 49, 194-206.
Budd, J. (2006). Labor relations: Striking a balance. Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill/Irwin.
Burke, R. (1999). Disability and female’s work experiences: An exploratory study. International Journal of Sociology & Social Policy, 19, 21–33.
Dainty, A., & Lingard, H. (2006). Indirect discrimination in construction organizations and the impact on women’s careers. ASCE Journal of Management in Engineering, 22, 108-118.
DeLeire, T. (2000). The wage and employment effects of the Americans with Disabilities Act. Journal of Human Resources, 35(4), 693–715.
Emmett, T. & Alant, E. (2006). Women and disability: Exploring the interface of multiple disadvantage. Development Southern Africa, 23(4), 445-460.
Erickson, W., Lee, C., von Schrader, S. (2010, March 17). Disability Statistics from the 2008 American Community Survey (ACS). Retrieved from Cornell University Rehabilitation Research and Training Center on Disability Demographics and Statistics (StatsRRTC) www.disabilitystatistics.org. Paper in pdf format: http://www.ilr.cornell.edu/edi/disabilitystatistics/StatusReports/2008-PDF/2008-StatusReport_US.pdf?CFID=22077280&CFTOKEN=89892745&jsessionid=f0302842222a9881c3a43412785954b2c135
Hale, T., Howard, H., & McNeil, J. (1998). Persons with disabilities: Labor market activity, 1994. Monthly Labor Review, 121(9). Retrieved from http://www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/1998/09/art1full.pdf.
Hill, J., Hill, M., Wehman, P., Banks, P., Pendleton, P., & Britt, C. (1985). Demographic analysis related to successful job retention for competitively employed persons who are mentally retarded. In P. Wehman & J. W. Hill (Eds.), Competitive employment for persons with mental retardation: From research to practice (Vol. 1). Richmond, VA: Rehabilitation Research and Training Center, Virginia Commonwealth University.
Hirsh, E., & Kornrich, S. (2008). The context of discrimination: Workplace conditions, institutional environments, and sex and race discrimination charges. American Journal of Sociology, 113(5), 1394-1432.
Jans, L. & Stoddard, S. (1999). Chartbook on females and disability in the United States
[Report]. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, National
Institute on Disability and Rehabilitation Research.
Kaye, H. (2001). Disability Watch vol. 2 [Report]. Oakland, CA: Disability Rights Advocates. Retrieved from http://www.dralegal.org/publications/disability_watch_v2.php
Kessler Foundation & National Organization on Disability (2010). The ADA, 20 years later: Kessler Foundation/National Organization on Disability. Retrieved from http:www.2010disabilitysurveys.orgpdfs/surveyresuts.pdf
Kregel, J. & Wehman, P. (1989). An analysis of the employment outcomes of young adults with mental retardation. In P. Wehman & J. Kregel (Eds.), Supported employment for persons with disabilities: Focus on excellence. New York: Human Sciences Press.
Kutza, E. (1985). Benefits for the disabled: How beneficial for females? In M. J. Deegan & N. A. Brooks (Eds.), Females and disability: The double handicap. Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books.
Menz, F., Hansen, G., Smith, H., Brown, C., Ford, M., & McCrowey, G. (1989). Gender equity in access, services, and benefits from vocational rehabilitation. The Journal of Rehabilitation, 55(1), 31-41.
Merz, M. A., Bricout, J. C., & Koch, L. C. (2001). Disability and job stress: Implications for vocational rehabilitation planning. Work: A Journal of Prevention, Assessment, and Rehabilitation, 17, 85-95.
Mudrick, H. (1988). Disabled women and public policies for income support. In M. Fine and A. Asch (Eds.), Women with disabilities: Essays in psychology, culture, and politics (pp. 245-268). Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.
Nosek, M., & Hughes, R. (2003). Psychosocial issues of women with physical disabilities: The continuing gender debate. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin, 46(4), 224-234.
O’Hara, B. (2004). Twice penalized: Employment discrimination against women with disabilities. Journal of Disability Policy Studies, 15(1), 27-34.
Olson, D., Andrea, C., Yovanoff, P., & Mank, D. (2000). Gender differences in supported employment. Mental Retardation, 38(2), 89-96.
Randolph, D., & Andresen, E. (2004). Disability, gender, and unemployment relationships in the United States from the behavioral risk factor surveillance system. Disability and Society, 19(4), 403-414.
Reed, C. A. (1999). Women with disabilities making the transition back to work: Psychosocial barriers and interventions. Work, 13, 67-72.
Rumrill, P. D., Roessler, R. T., McMahon, B. T., Hennessey, M. L., & Neath, J. (2007). Gender as a differential indicator of the employment discrimination experiences of Americans with multiple sclerosis. Work, 29, 303-311.
Schmitt, J. & Warner, K. (2010). The changing face of U.S. labor, 1983-2008. WorkingUSA: The Journal of Labor and Society, 13, 263-279.
Silva, E. (2003). Women at work: Changes and challenges. AAUW Outlook, Spring/Summer 2003, 18-22.
Smart, J. (2008). Disability, society, and the individual (2nd ed.). Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.
Smith, D. (2007). Employment status of women with disabilities from the Behavioral
Risk Factor Surveillance Survey (1995-2002). Work, 29(2), 127-135.
Tomaskovic-Devey, D., Stainback, K., Taylor, T., Zimmer, C., Robinson, C., McTague, T. (2006). Documenting desegregation: Segregation in American workplaces by race, ethnicity, and sex 1996-2003. American Sociological Review, 71(4), 565-588.
Traustadottir, R. (1990). Employment, equality, and gender. Retrieved from the website of the Center on Human Policy, Syracuse University http://thechp.syr.edu/workgen.htm.
U.S. Census Bureau (1994). Survey of income and program participation. Retrieved from http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/disability/sipp/disable9495.html
U.S. Census Bureau (2000). Profile of Selected Social Characteristics: 2000 (Table DP-2). Retrieved from www.census.gov/Press-Release/www/2002/dptables/2k00.xls
U.S. Census Bureau (2001). Current population survey. Retrieved from: http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/income/income01.html
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (1993). Annual statistical supplement to the Social Security Bulletin, 1992 (SSA Publication No. 13-11700). Retrieved from www.archive.org/details/socialsecuritybu1992unse
U.S. Department of Labor (1991). A report on the glass ceiling initiative. Washington, DC. Retrieved from http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED340653.pdf
Women's Bureau (2008). Quick facts on nontraditional occupations for women in 2008. Retrieved from http://www.dol.gov/wb/factsheets/nontra2008.htm.
Altman B., & Bernstein A. (2008). Disability and health in the United States, 2001–2005. Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics.
Armstrong, A. J., Koch, L. C., Lewis, A. N., Hurley, J. E., Lewis, P. H., McMahon, B. T. (2011). Gender, disability, and ADA Title I employment discrimination: A comparison of male and female charging party characteristics. Review of Disability Studies, 7(1).
Asch, A., & Fine, M. (1988). Introduction: Beyond pedestals. In M. Fine and A. Asch (Eds.), Women with disabilities: Essays in psychology, culture and politics. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.
Baldwin, M. (1991). Evidence on the occupational segregation of women with disabilities. Journal of Disability Policy Studies, 2(3), 31-47.
Baldwin, M., & Johnson, W. (1995). Labor market discrimination against females with disabilities, Industrial Relations, 34, 555–577.
Baldwin, M., Johnson, W., & Watson, S. (1993). A double burden of discrimination: Females with disabilities. Washington, DC: Center for the Study of Social Policy.
Bergmann, B. R. (1974). Occupational segregation, wages and profits when employers discriminate by race or sex. Eastern Economic Journal, 1, 103-110.
Bowe, F. (1992). Adults with disabilities: A portrait. Washington, DC: President’s Committee on Employment of People with Disabilities.
Bruyere, S. M., Erikson, W. A., & VanLooy, S. A. (2006). The impact of business size on employer ADA response. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin, 49, 194-206.
Budd, J. (2006). Labor relations: Striking a balance. Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill/Irwin.
Burke, R. (1999). Disability and female’s work experiences: An exploratory study. International Journal of Sociology & Social Policy, 19, 21–33.
Dainty, A., & Lingard, H. (2006). Indirect discrimination in construction organizations and the impact on women’s careers. ASCE Journal of Management in Engineering, 22, 108-118.
DeLeire, T. (2000). The wage and employment effects of the Americans with Disabilities Act. Journal of Human Resources, 35(4), 693–715.
Emmett, T. & Alant, E. (2006). Women and disability: Exploring the interface of multiple disadvantage. Development Southern Africa, 23(4), 445-460.
Erickson, W., Lee, C., von Schrader, S. (2010, March 17). Disability Statistics from the 2008 American Community Survey (ACS). Retrieved from Cornell University Rehabilitation Research and Training Center on Disability Demographics and Statistics (StatsRRTC) www.disabilitystatistics.org. Paper in pdf format: http://www.ilr.cornell.edu/edi/disabilitystatistics/StatusReports/2008-PDF/2008-StatusReport_US.pdf?CFID=22077280&CFTOKEN=89892745&jsessionid=f0302842222a9881c3a43412785954b2c135
Hale, T., Howard, H., & McNeil, J. (1998). Persons with disabilities: Labor market activity, 1994. Monthly Labor Review, 121(9). Retrieved from http://www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/1998/09/art1full.pdf.
Hill, J., Hill, M., Wehman, P., Banks, P., Pendleton, P., & Britt, C. (1985). Demographic analysis related to successful job retention for competitively employed persons who are mentally retarded. In P. Wehman & J. W. Hill (Eds.), Competitive employment for persons with mental retardation: From research to practice (Vol. 1). Richmond, VA: Rehabilitation Research and Training Center, Virginia Commonwealth University.
Hirsh, E., & Kornrich, S. (2008). The context of discrimination: Workplace conditions, institutional environments, and sex and race discrimination charges. American Journal of Sociology, 113(5), 1394-1432.
Jans, L. & Stoddard, S. (1999). Chartbook on females and disability in the United States
[Report]. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, National
Institute on Disability and Rehabilitation Research.
Kaye, H. (2001). Disability Watch vol. 2 [Report]. Oakland, CA: Disability Rights Advocates. Retrieved from http://www.dralegal.org/publications/disability_watch_v2.php
Kessler Foundation & National Organization on Disability (2010). The ADA, 20 years later: Kessler Foundation/National Organization on Disability. Retrieved from http:www.2010disabilitysurveys.orgpdfs/surveyresuts.pdf
Kregel, J. & Wehman, P. (1989). An analysis of the employment outcomes of young adults with mental retardation. In P. Wehman & J. Kregel (Eds.), Supported employment for persons with disabilities: Focus on excellence. New York: Human Sciences Press.
Kutza, E. (1985). Benefits for the disabled: How beneficial for females? In M. J. Deegan & N. A. Brooks (Eds.), Females and disability: The double handicap. Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books.
Menz, F., Hansen, G., Smith, H., Brown, C., Ford, M., & McCrowey, G. (1989). Gender equity in access, services, and benefits from vocational rehabilitation. The Journal of Rehabilitation, 55(1), 31-41.
Merz, M. A., Bricout, J. C., & Koch, L. C. (2001). Disability and job stress: Implications for vocational rehabilitation planning. Work: A Journal of Prevention, Assessment, and Rehabilitation, 17, 85-95.
Mudrick, H. (1988). Disabled women and public policies for income support. In M. Fine and A. Asch (Eds.), Women with disabilities: Essays in psychology, culture, and politics (pp. 245-268). Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.
Nosek, M., & Hughes, R. (2003). Psychosocial issues of women with physical disabilities: The continuing gender debate. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin, 46(4), 224-234.
O’Hara, B. (2004). Twice penalized: Employment discrimination against women with disabilities. Journal of Disability Policy Studies, 15(1), 27-34.
Olson, D., Andrea, C., Yovanoff, P., & Mank, D. (2000). Gender differences in supported employment. Mental Retardation, 38(2), 89-96.
Randolph, D., & Andresen, E. (2004). Disability, gender, and unemployment relationships in the United States from the behavioral risk factor surveillance system. Disability and Society, 19(4), 403-414.
Reed, C. A. (1999). Women with disabilities making the transition back to work: Psychosocial barriers and interventions. Work, 13, 67-72.
Rumrill, P. D., Roessler, R. T., McMahon, B. T., Hennessey, M. L., & Neath, J. (2007). Gender as a differential indicator of the employment discrimination experiences of Americans with multiple sclerosis. Work, 29, 303-311.
Schmitt, J. & Warner, K. (2010). The changing face of U.S. labor, 1983-2008. WorkingUSA: The Journal of Labor and Society, 13, 263-279.
Silva, E. (2003). Women at work: Changes and challenges. AAUW Outlook, Spring/Summer 2003, 18-22.
Smart, J. (2008). Disability, society, and the individual (2nd ed.). Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.
Smith, D. (2007). Employment status of women with disabilities from the Behavioral
Risk Factor Surveillance Survey (1995-2002). Work, 29(2), 127-135.
Tomaskovic-Devey, D., Stainback, K., Taylor, T., Zimmer, C., Robinson, C., McTague, T. (2006). Documenting desegregation: Segregation in American workplaces by race, ethnicity, and sex 1996-2003. American Sociological Review, 71(4), 565-588.
Traustadottir, R. (1990). Employment, equality, and gender. Retrieved from the website of the Center on Human Policy, Syracuse University http://thechp.syr.edu/workgen.htm.
U.S. Census Bureau (1994). Survey of income and program participation. Retrieved from http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/disability/sipp/disable9495.html
U.S. Census Bureau (2000). Profile of Selected Social Characteristics: 2000 (Table DP-2). Retrieved from www.census.gov/Press-Release/www/2002/dptables/2k00.xls
U.S. Census Bureau (2001). Current population survey. Retrieved from: http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/income/income01.html
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (1993). Annual statistical supplement to the Social Security Bulletin, 1992 (SSA Publication No. 13-11700). Retrieved from www.archive.org/details/socialsecuritybu1992unse
U.S. Department of Labor (1991). A report on the glass ceiling initiative. Washington, DC. Retrieved from http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED340653.pdf
Women's Bureau (2008). Quick facts on nontraditional occupations for women in 2008. Retrieved from http://www.dol.gov/wb/factsheets/nontra2008.htm.
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Author Biographies
Lynn Koch, Professor of Rehabilitation Education and Research Rehabilitation, Human Resources and Communication Disorders, University of Arkansas
Lynn Koch, Ph.D., is professor of Rehabilitation Education and Research Rehabilitation, Human Resources and Communication Disorders at the University of Arkansas. Dr. Koch is a certified rehabilitation counselor and former vocational rehabilitation counselor and has authored or co-authored more than 70 publications related to disability, vocational rehabilitation, and rehabilitation education.
Amy J. Armstrong, Associate Professor, Department of Rehabilitation Counseling, Virginia Commonwealth University
Amy J. Armstrong, Ph.D., CRC is an associate professor at Virginia Commonwealth University, Department of Rehabilitation Counseling. Dr. Armstrong has 27 years experience working in the field of disability, community integration and employment.
Allen N. Lewis, Associate Professor and Chair, Department of Rehabilitation Counseling, School of Allied Health Professions, Virginia Commonwealth University
Allen N. Lewis, Ph.D., is associate professor and chair of the Department of Rehabilitation Counseling in the School of Allied Health Professions at Virginia Commonwealth University in Richmond, VA, USA. Dr. Lewis has had a 27-year career as an academic, administrator, program evaluator, and clinician in public health and disability services systems.
Jessica E. Hurley, Virginia Commonwealth University, School of Allied Health Professions
Jessica E. Hurley, M.S., CRC is a Ph.D. candidate at Virginia Commonwealth University, School of Allied Health Professions. Ms. Hurley has a M.S. in Rehabilitation Counseling and has over 20 publications, primarily in the area of employment and disability.
Pam Lewis, Department of Rehabilitation Counseling, School of Allied Health Professions, Virginia Commonwealth University
Pam Lewis, Ph.D., is a post doctoral fellow in the Department of Rehabilitation Counseling in the School of Allied Health Professions at Virginia Commonwealth University in Richmond, VA, USA. Dr. Lewis has had a 30-year career in public mental health, and is currently employed at the Virginia Department of Medical Assistance Services.
Brian T McMahon, Professor, Virginia Commonwealth University
Brian T McMahon, Ph.D., CRC is a full professor at Virginia Commonwealth University and holds appointments in four schools including the School of Medicine’s Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation. Currently, Dr. McMahon studies workplace discrimination and disability for the U.S. Equal Opportunity Employment Commission.