REVIEW OF DISABILITY STUDIES: AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL, Volume 15, Issue 2

Research Article
Job-Related Challenges of Teachers with Physical Disabilities in 
Kumasi
Moses Danso-Afriyie, MS, Isaac Owusu, MA, Reindolf Anokye, MS, 
& Wisdom Kwadwo Mprah, PhD
Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology
Kumasi, Ghana

Abstract: This study aimed to establish the job-related challenges of Teachers with Physical 
Disabilities (TWPD) within the Kumasi Metropolitan Education Unit in Ghana. Twenty-one 
(21) TWPDs completed the study. A cross-sectional study design was used and an interview 
guide was utilized to solicit responses. Thematic content analysis was employed in analyzing 
the data collected. Relative to the nature of impairment, 'pain' and 'weakness' emerged in 
relation to impairments associated with TWPDs. 'Mobility on school compound' and 'writing 
on the board' were specific task related challenges encountered by TWPDs. However, 
additional job-related challenges existed in the form of attitudinal barriers. Due to the 
prevailing job-related challenges, most TWPDs had employed specific coping mechanisms to 
offset some of the challenges. Prominent among these coping mechanisms were being 
dependent on others for physical support and taking frequent breaks from tasks that were 
physically demanding. Overall, most TWPDs asserted they felt disadvantaged compared to 
their colleagues without physical disabilities due to the numerous job challenges they 
encountered. In light of these, it is recommended that the Ghana Education Service (GES) 
should profile the respective work-related challenges of TWPDs to come up with policies and 
interventions that would gradually eliminate these challenges.

Keywords: Job-Related; Challenges; Teachers; Physical Disabilities; Kumasi

Introduction

      The term 'physical disability' (PD) is defined broadly to cover a wide range of 
disabilities and health-related issues, including both congenital and acquired disabilities 
(Belson, 2003). Conditions that may pass for physical disabilities include muscular dystrophy, 
leg-length discrepancies, amputations, third-grade nerve injuries, spinal cord injuries and 
chronic fatigue syndrome. Other conditions such as cerebral palsy, spina bifida, arthritis, 
multiple sclerosis, stroke and auto-immune diseases could lead to physical disabilities. PD 
typically manifests in the form of restrictions in physical activities including walking, ability 
to negotiate obstacles, difficulties with using common tools and equipment and easy 
fatigability (Cockerham, 2007).

      According to the World Health Organization (2011), of the one billion of the world's 
population that has a disability, 80 million of them live in Africa, 737,743 of those in Africa 
live in Ghana (Ghana Statistical Service, 2012). Nearly 150 million persons with disabilities 
in the world experience extremely dire difficulties in life.

      Persons with Physical Disabilities (PWPD) have different job-related experiences that 

---PAGE 1---

typically depend on the type of job and availability or otherwise of barriers/facilitators. 
Generally, PWPDs tend to face fewer challenges with jobs that are not physically demanding 
compared to jobs that demand more physical effort (Bredberg, 1999). The foremost challenge 
of most PWPDs relative to their jobs has to do with access to the workplace. The presence of 
barriers in the form of staircases, lack of elevators, lack of handrails and ramps at the 
workplace implies PWPDs expend more effort in reaching their respective offices. In research 
by Erb and Harriss-White (2002), the majority of PWPDs surveyed admitted to the presence 
of barriers that hindered their entry to their respective points of work. In a similar survey by 
Ghai (2003), women with physical disabilities conceded the presence of facilitators would 
greatly improve accessibility to their respective workplaces. On some rare occasions, the lack 
of accessibility to workplaces resulted in PWPDs being dependent on other co-workers to 
access their respective offices (Jeffery & Singal, 2008).

      Kalyanpur (2007) found that teachers within the New Delhi metropolis felt the lack of 
physical facilitators within their respective schools and the metropolis hampered their 
performance relative to classroom work. In research by Obiozor (2010), some teachers with 
disabilities felt that less was expected of them at their respective workplaces due to their 
disabilities. Although this attitude might appear empathic, most of the TWPDs felt it was 
because they were thought of as 'weak'.

      Teachers play a huge role in shaping and mentoring students not just for academic 
success, but for life in general. Challenges that have the potential to negatively impact the 
competence or work of teachers are likely to undermine the aforementioned mentorship role 
and endanger the academic success of students. Thus there is a need to thoroughly assess the 
job-related challenges of teachers with disabilities to proffer long-term solutions that would 
enhance the competence of these teachers as well as ensure their students do well 
academically.

Methods

Study Site

      The Kumasi Metropolitan Education Unit (KMEU) is responsible for 551 schools 
within the Kumasi metropolitan area in Ghana. These schools are made up of 158 
kindergarten schools, 205 primary schools, and 188 junior high schools. There are over 4,000 
teachers working in the metropolitan unit. TWPDs constitute of less than 1% of all teachers 
within the unit. The KMEU serves as the administrative center for these schools and ensures 
that the teaching and learning in these schools is consistent with the dictates of the Ghana 
Education Service (GES).

      Additionally, the Metropolitan Education Unit enforces the policies of the GES related 
to compensation of teachers with disabilities. Teachers with physical disabilities are entitled 
to a 'disability allowance' that is paid monthly as part of their monthly remuneration. 
However, there are no teacher-specific policies that are directed towards making the job of 
teachers with physical disabilities any friendlier at the Metropolitan Education Unit level. Job-

---PAGE 2---

related challenges of teachers with physical disabilities are typically reported to the highest 
school authority for remedial actions.   
 
Study Design and Approach

      A cross-sectional design and a qualitative approach was adopted for the study. Cross-
sectional design allows for studies to be conducted over a relatively shorter period of time and 
are usually cost-effective (Hatch, 2002). With respect to this study, a cross-sectional design 
was the best approach. A major disadvantage of cross-sectional design is the fact that the 
timing of the snapshot might not be representative of the study population (Creswell, 2009).

      Relative to this research, the emphasis was put on unearthing the 'meaning' of the 
work-related challenges of teachers in an in-depth manner. Thus the choice of a qualitative 
approach was the best option as it allowed for a free-flowing narrative in which teachers 
thoroughly expressed themselves. Additionally, adopting a qualitative philosophy allowed for 
more probing questions that the researcher might not have initially considered. The job-related 
challenges of TWPDs is a complex issue that ranges from the obvious such as physical 
barriers to the very subtle such as difficulties in using teaching materials. Other advantages of 
qualitative research include the fact that it is not limited to rigidly defined variables and draws 
on the compelling experiences of respondents (Creswell, 1998).

Study Population and Inclusion Criterion

      The study population consisted of all teachers with physical disabilities within the 
Kumasi Metropolitan Education Unit. The Metropolitan Education Office keeps information 
of all teachers with physical disabilities for policy and management purposes. Additional 
inclusion criterion involved teachers having practiced for at least a year. This was to ensure 
respondents had some level of experience in the rudiments of their work. Further to this, the 
aforementioned inclusion criterion raised the chances that respondents would have 
encountered some challenges relative to their work.

Sampling Technique and Size

      A purposive sampling technique was employed in this study to select teachers with 
physical disabilities. The aforementioned sampling technique allows a researcher to reach 
his/her targeted sample over a relatively short period of time, while allowing for a variety of 
research designs to be utilized (Morse et al., 2002). With respect to this study, TWPDs were 
the target participants and due to their relatively low numbers, a purposive sampling approach 
allowed for the majority of them to be included in the study. The disadvantages of purposive 
sampling include possible researcher bias in selecting participants and the lack of 
representativeness relative to the sample (Kuckartz, 2014).

      For qualitative research, samples must be large enough to allow for all unique 
perspectives on an issue to be covered. However, if the sample becomes too large, the data are 
likely to be repetitive and subsequently, superfluous.

---PAGE 3---

      The sample size for this study was based on the concept of saturation as espoused by 
Morse (2001). By this concept, saturation is achieved when adding more respondents to the 
study that does not add any new perspective to the information collected. With respect to this 
study, no new perspectives were discovered beyond the first 21 respondents. Relative to the 
nature of impairment, 'pain' and 'weakness' were repeated by three (3) respondents beyond 
the 21st respondent. Other issues that were repeated by the aforementioned respondents 
included challenges with mobility on school compounds and difficulties with teaching 
materials.

Research Instruments

      The study utilized an interview guide. Information relating to demographic 
characteristics of respondents was sought using closed questions while those related to the 
specific objectives of the research utilized open-ended questions. A major advantage of using 
an interview guide is the fact that it allows for easy flow of the conversation between the 
researcher and respondent while giving the opportunity for the researcher to ask more probing 
questions (Creswell, 1998). More probing questions were asked based on respondents' 
answers to specific questions. The essence of the probing questions was to unearth the 'true' 
meaning of respondents' answers which is consistent with qualitative research.

Report on the Pilot Study

      A pilot study was carried out to test the overall feasibility of the study as well as 
streamline the questions in the interview guide. The pilot study was carried out at the Ejisu 
Juaben Municipal Education Unit with 10 teachers with physical disabilities completing the 
interview schedule. It was discovered that respondents experienced varying impairments that 
were mainly associated with an arm or leg. Pain and weakness were the major manifestations 
of the underlying impairments. Pain, in particular, was discovered to interfere with the 
activities of TWPDs and on certain rare occasions, halted the execution of specific physical 
activities. The majority of respondents felt the impairment they experienced did not interfere 
with most of their job-related activities. A common improvised method employed by 
respondents in overcoming difficult physical activities involved soliciting the help of pupils.

      Physical barriers confronting TWPDs included inaccessible classrooms and a general 
lack of reasonable accommodation within classrooms. Specifically, staircases, non-adjustable 
seats, fixed writing boards were common physical barriers cited by TWPDs. Overly 
sympathetic behaviors from colleagues and students, students' fixation on teachers' physical 
disabilities, lesser expectations from higher authorities were some of the major attitudinal 
barriers pilot respondents admitted to. Most pilot respondents believed that the policies of the 
Ghana Education Service on TWPDs hardly addressed the challenges within the classrooms. 
In terms of the aforementioned challenges on the performance of TWPDs, most respondents 
felt the challenges did not negatively impact their overall competence as teachers.

      Overall the pilot study informed a re-arrangement of the questions in the interview 
guide to allow for a better flow of the conversations based on respondents' answers. 

---PAGE 4---

Additionally, it allowed the researcher to anticipate the explaining technical terms such as 
disability and impairment.

Field Data Collection

      Data collection for this study took approximately two months to complete. The 
interviews took place within the premises of respondents' respective schools. TWPDs chose 
the most convenient time to have an interview with the researcher. The interview sessions 
usually lasted 30 minutes per respondent with an audio recording of the entire session. 
Respondents first completed demographic questions, followed by the nature of their 
impairment and finally job-related challenges. Grey areas were clarified based on respondent's 
probing questions. Similarly, based on the respondent's answers, the researcher probed further 
in instances where answers lacked clarity.

Data Management and Analysis

      To ensure the integrity of data, all audio recordings were played back on the same day 
of recording by the researcher to ensure clarity of responses to questions. Additionally, all 
recordings were uploaded on google drive for backup purposes, safe-keeping, and easy 
retrieval.

      Data analysis involved thematic analysis that utilized the six procedures; 
familiarization with data, forming initial codes, identifying themes within codes, reviewing 
themes, naming themes and creating the final report.

      In the familiarization with the data stage, all audio recordings were transcribed 
verbatim into written format. Generating the initial codes involved identifying recurring 
patterns within the transcribed data. These recurring patterns were not based on mere words 
but based on the 'true' meanings of respondents' answers to questions. Within the initial 
codes, themes were further identified and the relationship between themes identified. 
Reviewing the themes involved establishing a link between the themes and the literature 
review undertaken for the research. This was to ensure that there was literature to support and 
expand the generated themes. The final report of the thematic analysis is reported in the next 
chapter and is consistent with research objectives.

Validity

      To ensure the validity of the interview guide, questions were made consistent with the 
study objectives. Questions were reworded in line with established concepts of disability and 
challenges usually encountered by persons with physical disabilities. Questions were 
exhaustive enough to cover all study objectives and put in simple clear language. Further to 
this, the research questions of previous studies related to the challenges of persons with 
physical disabilities by Bredberg (1999); Horstman et al. (2008); and Jeffery and Singal 
(2008) were thoroughly studied to ensure some of the questions asked in these previous 
studies were consistent with those in this study.

---PAGE 5---

Reliability

      The aforementioned pilot study ensured the reliability of the research instrument 
(interview guide). Grey areas of the interview guide were thoroughly rephrased and made 
consistent to ensure respondents were in no doubt as to the meaning of the questions. These 
grey areas were considered for modification whenever at least two pilot respondents sought 
clarity on a particular question. Specific questions that were modified to improve consistency 
included those related to attitudinal barriers, policies of the GES and the perceived 
disadvantages TWPDs encountered.

Ethical Consideration

      Ethical approval was sought and granted by the ethics committee of the Committee on 
Human Research, Publications and Research (CHRPR) of Kwame Nkrumah University of 
Science and Technology. Ethical approval was also sought and granted by the Kumasi 
Metropolitan Education Unit. Respondents and the researcher signed an informed consent 
form. The consent form detailed the process of the research, potential benefits as well as the 
potential harm that could arise from it. Pseudonyms were used to mask the identities of 
respondents while ensuring participants could be reached in case further clarification on 
responses was needed. Further to this, respondents were assured of their right to withdraw 
from the study at any time if they wished.

      Proper record keeping and storage ensured confidentiality of data related to 
respondents. Additionally, transcribed data were kept on the researcher's computer with a 
password.

Results

4.1 Socio-Demographic and Disability Characteristics of Respondents

      Table 1 presents the socio-demographic and disability characteristics of respondents. 
Males formed the vast majority (71.43%) of respondents. Less than a quarter (23.81%) of all 
respondents had a Diploma qualification, the remainder had a Bachelor's (61.90%) or a Post-
Graduate (14.29%) qualification. Lower-limb (leg) disability (71.43%) was the most prevalent 
form of disability. Nearly half (47.62%) of all respondents did not use an assistive device. 
However, lower limb assistive devices were the most commonly used (38.09%).

Table 1 Socio-Demographic and Disability Characteristics of Respondents
       
Age in years (Mean ± SD)
40.20 ± 4.5 
Gender
       
Male
15 (71.43%)
Female
6 (28.57%)

---PAGE 6---

Years of practice (Mean ± SD)
Highest educational attainment
 15 ± 6.41
       
Diploma
5 (23.81%)
Bachelor's degree
13 (61.90%)
Post-graduate degree
3 (14.29%)
Teaching Level
       
Primary
9 (42.86%)
Junior High
12 (57.14%)

A body part with disability
 
Upper limb (arm)
5 (23.80%)
Lower limb (leg)
15 (71.43%)
Trunk
1 (4.76%)
Type of assistive device
 
None
10 (47.62%)
Arm support
1 (4.76%)
Leg support
8 (38.09%)
Wheelchair
2 (9.52%)
      
Nature of Impairment and its Effects Among Teachers

      Relative to how the underlying impairment was manifested, two major themes 
emerged; 'pain' and 'weakness'. The majority of respondents felt that pain was a major 
debilitating factor in their respective physical disabilities. Respondents gave different 
accounts of the type of pain and the associated weakness they experienced. While some 
respondents described the pain as sharp and shooting, others suggested the pain they 
experienced was dull and aching. For some respondents, the occurrence of pain was 
occasional; while others explained the pain was more persistent and disrupted their everyday 
activities. Oduro stated that:

The feeling of pain from my right leg is the most difficult symptom I experience; the 
pain is present most of the time and I do not have to exert myself to experience it.

---PAGE 7---

      Kofi stated:

I experience a dull aching pain that makes me weak in the left elbow and shoulder 
when I raise my arm; the pain is usually severer in the mornings compared to other 
times of the day.

      Most respondents with lower limb physical disabilities further alluded that the pain 
experienced in the affected limb typically radiated to the lower back as well. This 
phenomenon, they believed was due to the compensatory mechanisms they adopted in order 
to overcome the physical challenges associated with their respective disabilities. Mansa 
reaffirmed:

Due to the state of my right leg being shorter than the left, I tend to put more weight 
on the right half of my body. This has resulted in my spine taking a more curved 
appearance and as a result, I feel lots of pain in my lower back.

      Additionally, the vast majority of respondents believed the pain and associated 
weakness affected their overall physical endurance to such an extent that they were unable to 
cope with numerous everyday physical activities. As noted by Kwame:

Due to the constant pain and weakness in my left thigh, I do not feel fit at all as I 
easily get tired walking the shortest of distances.

      Beyond the symptoms associated with the primary impairment, another trend that 
emerged was pain and weakness that were associated with the use of assistive devices and 
compensatory mechanisms. For example, a good number of respondents with lower limb 
physical impairments who utilized axillary crutches as assistive devices reported experiencing 
painful shoulders due to pressure from the axillary crutches as Kwadwo highlighted:
Aside from the pain from my leg, I do experience lots of pain from my right shoulder 
due to the fact that I have been on these crutches for several years.

Job-Related Challenges of Teachers

      In relation to the specific job-related tasks that proved most challenging, 'mobility on 
school compound' and 'writing on the board' emerged as major themes. Teachers explained 
that they encountered numerous physical barriers within school compounds that impeded their 
movements between classrooms. Prominent among these physical barriers were uneven 
floors, lack of concrete floors, lack of ramps, and presence of staircases at the entrances to 
some classrooms.

      Uneven floors generally made the use of assistive devices very difficult. On some 
occasions, the imbalance it produced led to the tripping of some teachers on axillary crutches, 
with the potential for serious injury. Amponsah succinctly explains:

My biggest job-related challenge is movement on the school compound with my 
crutches, the uneven floor makes me lose balance occasionally and I have actually 

---PAGE 8---

fallen thrice since I started work.

      Additionally, respondents explained that the lack of concrete floors in some schools 
made it extremely challenging to use assistive devices as well as increased their chances of 
tripping. This situation was made worse on days when it rained, as there was virtually no grip 
between the floor and the tip of walking aids. The lack of ramps on school compounds made it 
extremely difficult for teachers to navigate their way around school compounds. Among 
respondents, wheelchair users complained the most about the lack of ramps on school 
compounds; however, teachers who utilized crutches equally explained the lack of ramps and 
presence of staircases posed serious ambulatory challenges for them. Afia, who uses a tricycle 
propelled with the upper limbs, asserted:

With my tricycle, I usually have to switch to crutches and get the assistance of another 
person before I am able to negotiate the staircase in front of my classroom.

      With respect to the challenges of writing on classroom boards, nearly all respondents 
admitted to one challenge or the other. For respondents on axillary and elbow crutches, the 
relatively higher placed boards meant they were unable to have the maximum support of their 
respective assistive devices as they had to stretch to write on the board. Akenten captured this 
as:

Writing on the board poses a lot of problems for me as I have to lift my arm from my 
elbow crutches while I reach for the board; this makes me feel highly unstable with 
respect to my balance.

      For respondents who utilized wheelchairs, the situation was even worse. They 
admitted to being able to use only the lower margins of writing boards within their respective 
schools due to the fact that the writing boards were fixed and not adjustable.

      Beyond task-specific challenges, other challenges for teachers with physical 
disabilities existed, mainly in the form of attitudinal barriers. However, most teachers 
admitted stigmatization of their respective conditions was rare at the workplace. Rather, it was 
an avalanche of 'sympathy from colleagues and students' that they believed negatively 
affected their respective work. This overly sympathetic attitude, they asserted, led to 
colleagues, students, and superiors expecting less from them. As captured by Kwame:
Consistently when I present my lesson notes to the headmaster, he tends to pass it off 
quickly while he does a lot of criticism on that of my colleagues. Initially, I felt it was 
because my notes were better, only to detect that I committed the same errors as my 
colleagues.

      Most teachers felt the attitude of expecting less from them generally made them feel 
helpless and acted against building their confidence. Sympathetic behavior from other 
teachers and students often came in the form of unsolicited physical support. Teachers 
complained that on most occasions when they tried some physical tasks, there were numerous 
colleagues and sometimes students on hand to take over. While a few teachers with physical 

---PAGE 9---

disabilities thought this attitude was beneficial to them, the majority felt it negatively 
impacted on their confidence in terms of executing physical activities.

      With respect to specific Ghana Education Service (GES) policies towards teachers 
with physical disabilities, most respondents thought they were woefully inadequate. Beside a 
paltry 'disability allowance' that is paid as part of their monthly salary, teachers felt the 
barriers hampering their work in their respective schools were hardly addressed. Teacher 
specific challenges such as inaccessible classrooms due to the lack of ramps, non-adjustable 
writing boards and inaccessible washrooms that had been reported to the GES by headmasters 
had largely not been addressed. Teachers explained that headmasters often alluded to the fact 
that the GES does not have readily available funds to eliminate the aforementioned barriers, 
but with the introduction of inclusive education, most of these barriers would be removed. 
However, with the passage of time and the deadline for all schools to be fully inclusive having 
expired, teachers are yet to see any concrete measures relative to the removal of work-related 
barriers.

Coping Mechanisms Adopted by Teachers

      Teachers admitted to employing numerous improvised methods to overcome the 
difficulties associated with specific work-related tasks. 'Support from colleagues and 
students' and 'taking frequent breaks' were the major themes that emerged. Teachers admitted 
to being dependent on colleagues on occasions when they had to negotiate physical barriers to 
their respective school compounds. This dependence often came in the form of physical 
support which occasionally required more than one colleague. Kumi stated:
To make my way to the staffroom, I usually have to wait on my colleague who 
sometimes calls in a second colleague due to the fact that the staircase leading to the 
room is quite expansive.

      With respect to making maximum use of the writing boards, teachers who reported 
difficulties admitted soliciting the support of students. These students often wrote on the 
board for the teachers while class was in session.

      Taking occasional breaks from specific tasks was equally an effective strategy used by 
some teachers in order to overcome specific work-related tasks. These teachers explained that 
they often took breaks to relieve themselves of the severe discomfort they felt in performing 
those activities. Teachers generally admitted the aforementioned improvised methods were 
often successful but came at a huge cost. As Kumi stated:

Due to the fact that I mostly wait on my colleagues before accessing the staffroom, I 
usually lose several minutes and sometimes a whole hour of work at the office.

---PAGE 10---

Effects of the Challenges on the Work of Teachers with Physical Disability in 
the Kumasi Metropolitan Education Unit

      Professionally, teachers generally felt they were 'somehow disadvantaged' due to their 
physical disabilities. They recounted numerous opportunities they missed due to their 
respective physical disabilities. Opportunities for professional development, workshops and 
seminars were missed because school authorities felt they were too physically demanding for 
TWPDs. Additionally, teachers felt their chances of a transfer to a desirable school were 
greatly reduced as the school would have to be closer to their residence. Oforiwa emphasized 
that:

There are some few schools within the metropolis with great opportunities that would 
have enhanced my career, but they are quite far from my residence and as such 
working there would be challenging.

      The vast majority of teachers equally felt they wielded less influence in terms of 
exerting control of their respective classes. This they believed was due to their limited 
mobility which sometimes made it difficult for them to enforce class rules. Additionally, they 
admitted the fact that they depended on students to run numerous errands did impact on 
enforcing strict class rules. Yaw put it as:

I honestly find it difficult strictly enforcing the class rules, as a rule as I generally have 
a liberal relationship with the majority of my class members; they help me out on a lot 
of physically demanding tasks.

      In spite of the numerous improvised methods teachers employed to minimize the 
effects of their respective physical disabilities; most teachers believed they would have 
performed a lot better on their respective subjects if the appropriate physical facilitators were 
in place. Kwadwo explained that:

My job as a mathematics teacher demands I write a lot of illustrations on the board; 
due to the relatively higher position of the board, I am forced to stand over extended 
periods of time. This makes me very tired and affects my overall performance.

      In relation to punctuality, most teachers asserted they were usually 'punctual' despite 
the numerous physical barriers they encountered. Adopted strategies to avoid lateness 
included setting off early and avoiding congested areas when heading for their respective 
schools. Further to this, most teachers admitted their respective physical disabilities rarely 
made them miss school.

      In spite of the several challenges, most teachers felt they were 'competent' in their 
respective roles. They explained that the stellar academic performance of their respective 
classes was proof that the underlying physical impairment and associated challenges had not 
affected their competencies. Personally, most teachers admitted to being 'confident' of their 
abilities as teachers and recounted how they are able to partake in organizing co-curriculum 
activities such as sports. Kumi asserted:

---PAGE 11---

I honestly believe I am as competent as any of my colleagues; over the past years 
students taking my course have generally done well and I am able to accomplish most 
co-curriculum activities assigned me.

Discussion

      The high incidence of pain among TWPDs is consistent with the findings of Wade and 
de Jong (2000) who reported pain to be one of the most common debilitating occurrences 
affecting persons with physical disabilities. The issue of pain has a number of implications. 
Firstly, the uncomfortable nature of pain could further derail the levels of physical functioning 
of affected teachers as more effort is expended on routine activities when working through the 
pain barrier. Thus a vicious cycle sets in which TWPDs who find physical functioning quite 
demanding are further compromised by pain. This is likely to give rise to fatigue with the 
potential to impact on the overall work performance of affected teachers. This phenomenon 
probably explains why the majority of TWPDs who experienced pain equally reported 
weakness as a concomitant debilitating factor. Secondly, as posited by Muse (2002), long-
term pain has the potential to make affected persons irritable, short-tempered and impatient. 
The aforementioned negative attributes could undermine their work and more importantly, 
negatively impact the academic performance of their respective students.

      Pain associated with the usage of assistive devices could cause TWPDs to use those 
devices less frequently. It is also possible for some TWPDs to completely abandon such 
assistive devices (Phillip & Zhao, 1993). Indeed, this could be responsible for the relatively 
higher number of respondents in this study who did not employ an assistive device. As posited 
by Ostir et al. (2002) assistive devices generally enhance the functional independence of 
persons with disabilities by providing additional support, boosting feelings of safety and 
raising confidence. Thus in both instances, affected teachers are likely to lose some level of 
functional independence and are likely to depend on the physical support of others with long-
term negative implications for their respective jobs. Additionally, non-usage of assistive 
devices could give rise to more compensatory gait mechanics such as 'stooping' with the 
possibility of inducing more pain.

      The general absence of physical facilitators such as walkways, ramps, curb ramps and 
handrails within the environs of TWPDs could equally account for nearly half of respondents 
who did not use assistive devices. As asserted by Sah (2010), assistive devices should be 
coupled with the provision of facilitators to allow for the optimal physical functioning of 
PWPDs. For example, teachers using wheelchairs, walkways would ensure there was 
sufficient space for mobility while curb ramps would ensure they were able to join adjoining 
roads. In the absence of these facilitators, the use of a wheelchair for mobility is extremely 
difficult and on some occasions, virtually impossible. Accommodations for teachers, 
including ramps and better flooring, would help students as well as visitors to the school. As 
such they can be perceived to be more cost-effective than they might seem if the focus was 
only on teachers.

---PAGE 12---

      As asserted by Bredberg (1999), PWPDs generally find jobs that are 'physically 
demanding tough to cope with'. Teaching, by its very nature, demands constant interaction 
with students and the school environment that may prove physically demanding. Difficulties 
with mobility on school compounds due to the lack of facilitators suggests that affected 
teachers were less mobile on campus due to possible discomfort associated with mobility. 
This could have a negative impact on building interpersonal relationships with colleagues. 
Such interpersonal relationships are important for teachers to share ideas and relieve job-
related stress. As espoused by Mayo et al. (1999), in the absence of interpersonal relationships 
at work, feelings of depression and helplessness could set in and negatively impact the work 
of teachers. On occasions where affected teachers are obliged to move, such as having a class 
in an adjacent block, uneven floors, and lack of ramps could raise the risk of tripping with 
possible injuries that could derail the health of the affected TWPDs. As reaffirmed by the 
Heart and Stroke Foundation (2017), facilitators do not only ensure better physical 
performance by PWPDs but ensure their safety as well.

      On the other hand, the lack of facilitators such as ramps, as deduced by Jeffery and 
Singal (2008), could force teachers to be dependent on other people for their mobility. These 
teachers are likely to be stranded or lose precious time on the days that these persons are not 
readily available. Further to this, teachers, being dependent on other people for mobility feeds 
into the perception that PWDs (including affected teachers) are helpless and mask the issue of 
a lack of facilitators.

      Additionally, decreased mobility among TWPDs, as suggested by Horstman et al. 
(2008), could give rise to physical deconditioning in which the affected teachers' physical 
endurance further diminishes due to the lack of physical activity. This could have long-term 
negative implications for affected teachers' ability to move, even when utilizing assistive 
devices.

      The widespread issue of difficulties with using the writing board is of grave concern as 
it is a basic tool of communication between teachers and students. Teachers in wheelchairs 
who utilized only the lower margin of the writing boards suggests that these teachers had only 
a limited space to share information with students. In the absence of teaching assistants, these 
teachers are likely to utilize the services of some students in writing out notes on the board. 
This unorthodox approach would likely have a negative impact on teaching and learning. The 
student who volunteers to write on the board would have to make extra time to write out 
his/her personal notes. This has the tendency to affect the general class organization as well as 
burden those students who volunteer to write on the board. For teachers who felt unstable on 
their crutches due to the fact that they had to stretch to reach relatively high writing boards, 
the situation puts them at risk of falling due to the lack of body balance created. Moreover, 
affected teachers were likely to be fatigued as it takes more physical effort to maintain their 
balance without the maximum support of their crutches.

      Improvised methods by TWPDs such as taking occasional breaks suggest these 
teachers took a longer time to accomplish work-related tasks. On occasions where time was 

---PAGE 13---

limited, affected teachers were likely not to accomplish these tasks with the potential to affect 
their overall performance as well as that of their students.

      As asserted by Minow (1990) sympathetic behavior towards PWDs are usually 
founded on the perception that such persons are helpless. Sympathetic behavior from 
colleagues and school authorities expecting less from TWPDs could negatively impact their 
overall competencies as teachers. For example, lesson notes are strictly planned based on 
curriculum content, student needs, and teaching strategies. Subsequently, if these lesson notes 
are not thoroughly inspected by the appropriate authorities as admitted by some respondents, 
teachers are bound to develop a lacklustre attitude towards such an important exercise. With 
the passage of time, this lackluster attitude becomes entrenched and has the potential to 
negatively impact affected teachers' professionalism. Additionally, students' academic 
performance could suffer if teachers' competencies are compromised.

      Sympathetic behavior towards PWDs tends to discount their contributions and 
frustrates their efforts in improving their work output (Nambissan, 2000). For hardworking 
TWPDs who get results, the sympathetic behavior could mean they are not appreciated as 
their outputs are never critically examined. Subsequently, there is no motivation to improve.

      The lack of policies by the Ghana Education Service (GES) to address specific 
problems encountered by TWPDs implies these problems are likely to linger on over the long 
term. As the regulatory body responsible for the management and development of schools and 
their human resources, the lack of clear-cut policies on catering for the needs of teachers with 
disabilities implies school authorities are at a loss as to whether to report on barriers 
hampering such teachers. For school authorities who take the initiative to report on such 
issues, the lack of clear-cut policies on supporting teachers with disabilities means the GES 
does not have the budget to support such reports. The reports become mere formalities and 
over time, school authorities are likely to give up and not forward these reports to the GES. 
With respect to TWPDs, this situation creates a feeling of hopelessness and could lead to 
psychological problems alongside the pertaining physical challenges. The disability allowance 
paid to TWPDs does little to solve the numerous challenges confronting teachers as they are 
meant for personal use while the majority of the aforementioned challenges confronting 
teachers are job-related.

      The general feeling of being disadvantaged by TWPDs is a testament to the 
widespread barriers (both physical and attitudinal) they faced relative to their jobs. The 
numerous professional development opportunities missed by TWPDs points to the fact that 
school authorities view the challenges confronting these teachers as emanating from them and 
not due to the lack of facilitators, alluding to the normal-abnormal categorization as espoused 
by Lányi et al.(2004). In the aforementioned categorization, the barriers associated with 
disability (including physical challenges) emanate from the individual person with a disability 
and the expectations for he/she to cope.

      TWPDs admitting to having less control of their respective classes due to their lack of 
mobility within classrooms have far-reaching implications for their respective jobs. Firstly, 

---PAGE 14---

the situation of lack of class control could lead to students not having the full import of 
lessons as a class could potentially be easily disrupted. Additionally, classroom misbehavior 
such as avoidance of work, clowning, harassing classmates, verbal abuse and defiance could 
become entrenched with the passage of time. The aforementioned misbehavior on the part of 
students would most likely negatively impact on the academic performance of students while 
creating the impression TWPDs were not up to the task.

      Subject-specific challenges of TWPDs due to the lack of physical facilitators could 
demotivate teachers and affect students' enthusiasm towards those subjects and subsequently 
their academic performances on those subjects. Despite teachers believing they were 
competent and alluding to the stellar academic performances of their respective students, the 
existence of subject-specific challenges implies students' performance in these subjects could 
improve if the associated barriers were eliminated. Additionally, the persisting physical 
challenges in teaching these subjects could force affected teachers to adopt less stressful 
postures towards those subjects. For example, in the classic case of Nkansah the mathematics 
teacher, taking a seat and utilizing the lower margin of the writing board would be more 
comfortable than the prolonged standing he has to endure. However, this is likely to 
negatively impact on his lesson delivery as teaching mathematics requires writing out 
systematic illustrations in order for students to comprehend the concepts.

Limitations

      A major limitation of the study is the fact that the relatively small numbers of TWPDs 
available in the Kumasi Metropolitan Education Unit would not allow for the application of 
probability sampling, thus limiting the extent to which the study findings could be 
generalized. Also, there are no such studies on TWPDs available in developing countries to 
compare with the findings from this study.

Conclusion

      In conclusion, the numerous job-related challenges TWPDs encountered in this study 
mirror the challenges of PWPDs in Ghana in which issues of disability and disablement are 
often not prioritized by policymakers. This is often exacerbated by cultural stereotypes in 
which PWDs (including TWPDs) in general are seen as helpless and needing the support of 
others. Thus a vicious cycle is created where the absence of facilitators make TWPDs more 
vulnerable, and consequently, adopt unorthodox means of overcoming the barriers to their 
respective jobs. This, in turn, reinforces the stereotypes against them and masks the real issues 
militating against their respective jobs.

Recommendations

      In light of the findings of inadequate policies by GES, it is recommended that the 
GES, in addition to collecting information on TWPDs, should profile their respective work-
related challenges. This profiling would give a vivid description of the varied and respective 
physical challenges that could form the basis of long-term policies towards eradicating the 

---PAGE 15---

numerous barriers that confront these teachers. Additionally, the profiling would allow for 
prioritizing some challenges over others in the face of a limited budget. For example, issues of 
accessibility to the workplace could be prioritized over classroom challenges if it is 
discovered more teachers have challenges with accessing the workplace. Thus with the 
passage of time, most barriers would be removed in order of their respective frequency of 
occurrence among teachers. This profiling should commence as soon as feasible and should 
directly involve officers of the GES and TWPDs.

      Secondly, the GES, with its' specialist disability staff could embark on sensitization 
programs on the concept of reasonable accommodation within the various schools. This 
would ensure stakeholders (including teachers, headmasters, and Parent-Teacher 
Associations) contribute to interventions that would ensure the gradual removal of the 
numerous barriers confronting TWPDs. For example, PTAs of the respective schools could 
possibly raise funds to procure adjustable writing boards that would cater for the difficulties 
associated with writing boards confirmed by some TWPDs. This sensitization program could 
be carried out once a year by the respective schools within the metropolitan education unit.

      With respect to the avalanche of sympathetic behavior towards TWPDs, advocacy on 
the social construction of disability would help improve stakeholders' attitudes towards 
TWPDs. Stakeholders should be made to understand that if the appropriate facilitators are in 
place, TWPDs could be physically independent. Thus the avalanche of sympathy is 
misdirected as TWPDs are not primarily responsible for the physical challenges encountered. 
Disability campaigners, for example Disability Talkers in Kumasi, would be a very 
appropriate body to embark on the aforementioned advocacy. This could be done through 
seminars periodically and should commence as soon as feasible.

      The finding that TWPDs missed out on a number of professional development 
opportunities suggests forming a self-help group, this could work to increase their chances of 
professional development. Firstly, the self-help group could lobby organizers of teacher-
related workshops and seminars to make provisions for TWPDs while engaging school 
authorities to nominate them for such endeavors. Additionally, self-help groups could enable 
TWPDs to share valuable experiences that would enhance their roles in their respective 
schools. The self-help group could be formed as soon as feasible.

      Furthermore, the problems related to difficulties with writing on the board, could be 
handled with technological accommodations that are now relatively cheap to provide. The 
Ministry of Education could support this initiative by making the technologies available.

Moses Danso-Afriyie, MS, is a young man who was born in a small community known as 
Kwamang within the Bekwai Municipality of the Ashanti Region of Ghana. He is a teacher by 
profession, who has been teaching Information and Communication Technology for the past 9 
years at the Junior High School Level in Ghana. He currently holds a Master of Science 
degree in Disability, Rehabilitation and Development.

Isaac Owusu, MA, is presently a lecturer at the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and 

---PAGE 16---

Technology. His research interest areas include disability studies and inclusion. He has 
published articles in peer-reviewed journals in Disability and Public Health.

Reindolf Anokye, MS, is a Social Worker, Social entrepreneur and a Biostatistician. He 
studied social work, sociology and history at the University of Ghana and has recently 
completed a Master of Science degree program in Disability, Rehabilitation and Development 
at the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology. He is presently pursuing a 
PhD program at Edith Cowan University in Australia. Reindolf Anokye does research in 
social policy, social work, disability and health.

Wisdom Kwadwo Mprah, PhD, is a lecturer at the Centre for Disability and Rehabilitation 
Studies, Department of Community Health, School of Medical Sciences, Kwame Nkrumah 
University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana. He holds a Diploma (Education), 
Bachelor of Arts (Geography), and Master of Philosophy (Geography) from the University of 
Cape Coast, Ghana, and PhD (Disability Studies) from the University of Illinois at Chicago, 
USA. Dr. Wisdom Kwadwo Mprah has conducted research, both locally and internationally, 
in the areas of Education and the Sexual and Reproductive Health experiences of Persons with 
Disabilities. He is also interested in the participation of persons with disabilities in 
employment and politics. He has published in more than 15 peer-reviewed journals and is also 
a reviewer of the African Journal of Disability, Disability, CBR & Inclusive Development, 
British Journal of Visual impairment and International Journal of Inclusive Education. He is 
an active member of the Ghana National Association of the Deaf and the Ghana Federation of 
Disability Organizations and has tremendously impacted on the operations of these 
organizations.

Disclosure Statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.

References

Belson, S. I. (2003). Physical disabilities, NY: Houghton Mufflin Inc.

Bredberg, E. (1999). Writing disability history: Problems, perspectives and sources. 
Disability & Society, 3rd Edition. London: Sage Publications, Inc.

Cockerham, W. C. (2007). Social causes of health and disease. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press.

Creswell, J. W. (1998). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five 
traditions. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.

Creswell, J. W. (2009). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods 
approaches. 3rd edition. Los Angeles: Sage Publications, Inc.

Erb, S., & Harriss-White, B. (2002). Outcast from social welfare: Adult incapacity and 
disability in rural South India. Bangalore: Books for Change.

Ghai, A. (2003). (Dis)embodied form. Issues of disabled women. New Delhi: Shakti Books.

---PAGE 17---

Ghana Statistical Services. (2012). Population & housing census: Summary report of final 
results 2010. Accra, Ghana: Ghana Statistical Service.

Hatch, J. A. (2002). Doing qualitative research in education settings. Albany: SUNY Press.
Heart and Stroke Foundation. (2017). Interventions for Stroke. Retrieved from 
www.strokengine.ca/intervention/assistive-devices

Horstman, A. M., Beltman, M. J., Gerrits, K. H., Koppe, P., Janssen, T. W., Elich, P., & De 
Haan, A. (2008). Intrinsic muscle strength and voluntary activation of both lower 
limbs and functional performance after stroke. Clinical Physiology and Functional 
Imaging, 28(4), 251-261.

Jeffery, R., & Singal, N. (2008). Disability estimates in India: A changing landscape of socio-
political struggle. Economic and Political Weekly, 43(12 & 13), 22-24.

Kuckartz, U. (2014). Qualitative text analysis: A guide to methods, practice and using 
software. Sage Publications, Inc.

Kalyanpur, M. (2007). Equality, quality and quantity: Challenges in inclusive education. Sage 
Publications, Inc.

Lányi, C. S., Laky, V., Tilinger, A., Pataky, I., Simon, L., Kiss, B., ... & Páll, A. (2004). 
Developing multimedia software and virtual reality worlds and their use in 
rehabilitation and psychology. Studies in Health Technology and Informatics, 105, 
273-284.

Mayo, E. N., Wood-Dauphinee, S., Ahmed, S., Carron, G., Higgins, J., Mcewen, S., & 
Salbach, N. (1999). Disablement following stroke. Disability and Rehabilitation, 
21(5&6), 258-268.

Minow, M. (1990). Making all the difference. Inclusion, exclusion and American law. 
Cornell: University Press.

Morse, J. M. (2001). Situating grounded theory within qualitative inquiry. In R. S. Schreiber 
& P. N. Stern (Eds.), Using Grounded Theory in Nursing (pp. 1-15). New York: 
Sprinter Publishing Company, Inc.

Morse, J. M., Barrett, M., Mayan, M., Olson, K., & Spiers, J. (2002). Verification strategies 
for establishing reliability and validity in qualitative research. International Journal of 
Qualitative Methods, 1(2), 13-22.

Muse, M. (2002). Stress-related, posttraumatic chronic pain syndrome: Behavioral treatment 
approach. Pain, 25(3), 389-94.

Nambissan, G. B. (2000). Dealing with deprivation. Enabling Education, 25(3), 389-94.

Obiozor, W. E. (2010). The Use of Music to Teach Life Skills to Students with Emotional 
Disabilities in the Classroom. Online Submission, 7(1), 17-26.

Ostir, G. V., Goodwin, J. S., Markides, K. S., Ottenbacher, K. J., Balfour, J., & Guralnik, J. 
M. (2002). 'Differential effects of premorbid physical and emotional health on 
recovery from acute events'. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 50(4), 713-
718

---PAGE 18---

Phillip, B., & Zhao, H. (1993). Predictors of assistive technology abandonment. Assistive 
Technology, 5(1), 36-45.

Sah, P. K. (2010). Assistive technology competencies: Need, outlook, and prospects (with 
reference to special educators for children with visual impairment). American Journal 
of Disability, 200(15), 22-35.

Wade, D. T., & de Jong, B. A. (2000). Recent advances: Recent advances in rehabilitation. 
British Medical Journal, 320(7246), 1385.

World Health Organization, and World Bank. (2011). World report on disability 2011. 
Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization.

Job-Related Challenges of Teachers with Physical Disabilities in Kumasi by 
Moses Danso-Afriyi, Isaac Owusu, Reindolf Anokye & Wisdom Kwadwo Mprah is licensed 
under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. Based on a work at 
https://rdsjournal.org. Permissions beyond the scope of this license may be available at 
https://www.rds.hawaii.edu.
      
---PAGE 18---